THE PURIFICATION OF VIOLENCE AND THE TRANSLATION OF FAIRY TALES : A CORPUS-BASED STUDY

his study aims to investigate the translation of violence, to propose and to analyse the translation strategies of English Fairytales (EFT) to the Portuguese language. he theoretical framework of this study is based on the interface of Corpus-based Translation Studies (CTS) and Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS). Klingberg’s (1986) puriication concept adapted as translation strategies proposed by Chesterman (1997). For the alignment and corpus analysis, COPA-TRAD – Parallel Corpus for translation research (Fernandes, L. & Silva, 2014) is used. he analysis revealed that the target text had been translated under moral and religious motivational factors of the source culture because the literature translated in Brazil still had to comply with the Portuguese requirements for translating for children (Coelho, 1987).


Introduction
Fairy tales come from the oral tradition of folklore and have been spread out by word of mouth for centuries.he stories have had their plots adapted from adults to child readers as to suit the requirements of the ever-changing idea of childhood.hese narratives are enriched with whimsical creatures and carry fantastic events that take place in magical worlds detached from our own time and space.In these worlds, it is possible to ind supernatural and fantastic beings, such as talking animals, giants, goblins and "sometimes" fairies; I say "sometimes" because they are not always there.hereupon, these stories have sewn together linguistic and cultural elements, coming from multifarious origins, which we now share as our own.Zipes (1999) reveals that the language in these tales was also symbolic and "could be read on so many diferent levels that they were considered somewhat dangerous" (p.336).
Some of the tales carried out plots with children's death, killing, robbery, abandonment and a great deal of other issues that underwent under puriication before reaching the ears and the imagination of a child.Jacobs (1891) in his preface to the irst edition of English Fairy Tales acknowledges the necessity of making some deviations from the "original" as to make the tales readable for children -"it has been my ambition to write as a good old nurse when she tells fairy tales." he history of the Translation of Children's Literature (TCL) shows that when travelling from one cultural and linguistic system to another, most fairy tales went through processes of puriication as to suit the prevailing society's moral, educational and religious requirements.In Brazil, the last two have been the threshold to the creation of commissions to intervene in the production and translation of Children's Literature.here were even lists of books which could and could not be translated (Bertoletti, 2012).By and large, translating for children in Brazil at the beginning of the twentieth century implied that the translator should work in conformity to fulilling the requirements of these commissions.In like manner, most of the English fairy tales translated in Brazil featured the presence of situations of violence involving children, their relatives, and other characters and had to be puriied.From this standpoint, the present study aims at bringing to light this violence represented through the physical actions performed by the characters and the translation strategies adopted to purify this violence.
Within the area of TCL, this study adopts the categories for cultural adaptation suggested by Klingberg (1986) with a focus on puriication, namely, a kind of censorship leading to abridgements of stories to suit speciic requirements of a target language -mostly known within the ield of TCL.Klinberg's approach towards the TCL is rather prescriptive as he concentrates on the formulation of rules for translators.So, this study is carried out under Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS), adapting Klingberg's categories that turned out suitable for describing the phenomenon of puriication in the Translation of Children's Literature (TCL). he cultural aspects were the main wellspring for having chosen this topic of puriication in the TCL, as well as the fact that there are very few studies involving the translation of fairy tales and the puriication in translations to the Portuguese language in Brazil and other countries.
When it comes to fairy tales, most translators of Children's Literature, in Brazil and around the globe, acknowledge their adaptations as to suit their target audiences, and for that, they resort to deletions and substitutions, as we can see in Joseph Jacobs' works in the following section.

Joseph Jacobs' English Fairy Tales
Joseph Jacobs was born Australian but moved to England at the age of 18, in 1827.He studied anthropology at King's College and later became e member of the English Folk-Lore Society. he author created the Folk-Lore Journal, being himself the chief editor.In the years that followed, he dedicated to the collection of folk tales that were to compose the two volumes of stories for children: English Fair y Tales (1890) and More English Fairy Tales (1894), illustrated by John D. Batten.Also, he included notes to both volumes in which he provides explanations for the collection process as well as for the linguistic adaptations.Amongst the adaptions are the exclusion of what he calls vulgarisms and the simpliication of lengthy phraseology from the eighteenth century.He intended to provide English children with stories that were meant to be read aloud, "fairy tales which English children will listen to […] and not merely taken in by the eye" (Jacobs, 1980).Jacobs was also an inveterate sotener, and Chatton understands that Unlike other folklorists, Jacobs believed in altering tales to it his young audiences, omitting incidents he felt were too violent or coarse, changing episodes to make them more attractive, and developing language when he felt it was too complicated or dialect-laden.He was careful, however, to acknowledge his written sources and to include notes and references at the back of each book that tell adults about the changes he has made and his reasons for making them.(Chatton, 1995, p. 348) Diferent from Joseph Jacobs, the translators of the English fairy tales to the Portuguese language do not acknowledge the adaptations made to the stories.On the contrary, it is hard to ind any preface or footnotes that give reasons for the need of any alterations, such as, linguistic, literary or even ideological ones.

Os mais belos contos de Fadas ingleses
he irst volumes from the collection Os mais belos contos de Fadas from all nations were irst published in 1940, and the irst edition of Os mais belos contos de Fadas ingleses was released in Brazil in 1944 by Editora Vecchi.his version did not provide the translator's name, just the illustrator's, Ramon Hespanha.he mention of the translators only appeared ten years later in the ith edition. he translator responsible for the translation of the English-Portuguese linguistic pair was Persiano da Fonseca.his edition has the same fairy tales as the irst one with no signiicant alterations.
Compared to the source text English Fairy Tales, Os mais belos contos de Fadas ingleses brings a list of thirty-four tales out of a total of forty-three from the English edition.here is a predominance of stories with magical creatures, such as giants, desolate realms and slaughtering humans.All deaths occurred in the name of God.

he puriication of violence
If we go back to the introduction of this article, we ind reference to the folklorist Joseph Jacobs and his acknowledgement of altering the folk tales collected before they turned into their written versions of fairy tales.On these grounds, Zipes (1999) observes that for many centuries translations of fairy tales sufered adaptations mainly due to the non-acceptance of these stories in their "original form" by society, given the fact that fairy tales convey subversive features in language and at times in the whole plot.For that reason, they had to be "sanitised" (p.336).Malarte-Feldman (2008) emphasises that these tales, when adapted, changed into "new versions or variants" (p.43).
According to Blamires (2006), Edgar Taylor (1793-1839), a British legal writer and translator, was an "inveterate sotener" and used to signal all adaptations made in his translations by editing and adding a note at the end of each tale.He also tried to avoid translating the tales which carried frightening plots or the ones which portrayed cannibalism or any physical violence.He wanted the stories to end happily ever ater, even though nowadays some of his translations still carry some level of violence.
So, puriication is the elimination, deletion and omission of linguistic items and/or themes that are considered to go against "the set of values of the adult intermediary" (Klingberg, 1986).It primarily involves the processes of cultural adaptations and can only be applied when the Translation of Children's Literature is at stake.
In the Brazilian translation scenario of the nineteenth century, Arroyo (2010) points out that the translations of fairy tales had pedagogical purposes with a didactic aim and mostly because of the adoption by schools.Zilberman (2003) stresses that the alterations in the translation of literature oriented to the child reader in Brazil at the time didacticized and oriented the child towards the adult's perspectives of proper moral values and good conduct.
By this means, fairy tales have undergone a process of translation through puriication with the aim of adjusting the plots to the proposed set of values which schools and society demanded.he translations, in this case, might have been made in one of the categories here adapted from Klingberg's (1986) cultural context adaptations.hey are "(1) added explanation; (2) rewording; (3) explanatory translation; (4) explanation outside the text; (5) substitution of an equivalent in the culture of the target language; (6) substitution for a rough equivalent in the culture of the target language; (7) simpliication; (8) deletion and (9) localization" (p.18).For this study, these categories add meaning to puriication in TCL for the reason that they are somehow relected in the Target Texts (TT) here analysed and applied with the aim of identifying the puriication strategies the TT.

My mother slew me: deining violence
In fairy tales, nearly every character -from the most hardened criminal to the Virgin Mary -is capable of outrageous behaviour.(Tatar, 1999, p. 365) Tatar scrutinised some German fairy tales to ind out that "nearly every character is capable of cruel behaviour" (p.365).To demonstrate that, she gives the example of Grimms' Cinderella's stepsisters: "so both sisters were punished with blindness to the end of their days for being so wicked and false (p.366).Bottigheimer (2000) suggests that it is important to realise that many of the Grimms' tales were removed from collections to children due to the fact of containing egregious violence (p.208).
Scholars from the ield of Translation of Children's Literature, Folklore Studies and the studies of Children's Literature have identiied that many fairy tales from diverse cultural scenarios have sufered some puriication.hey agree that most of what has been avoided to translate is related to violence or to any other kind of subversion or taboo having sometimes one or another tale omitted from a collection of stories.
So, what is violence?According to Holbrook (2009) in the Cambridge dictionary of psychology, violence is "described as any physical action perpetrated with the deliberate intention of harming, violating, or damaging the victim" (p.570). he author categorises murder and "physical assault" as "extreme cases of individual violence".he Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary also focuses on the exertion of physical force with the intention to injure or abuse someone. he Portuguese language dictionary Houaiss1 adds to the previous deinitions: the quality of what is violent. 2  "he Juniper Tree" has descriptions of excessive violence.It tells a story of a stepmother who beheads her stepdaughter and cooks the girl's heart and liver for supper.he girl's father ends up eating his daughter's organs without knowing it.Its English variant "he Rose Tree" also brings "cannibalism, death and retribution".Tatar (1999) goes on to say that with "its lurid descriptions of decapitation and cannibalism, [this is] probably the most shocking of all fairy tales" (p.183). he presence of these cruel scenes might be the reason why Editora Vecchi did not translate this fairy tale and as a consequence, the story is not included in Os mais belos contos de Fadas ingleses.

Table 1 -Violence
he Rose-tree Well!She laid down her little golden head without fear; and whist!Down came the axe, and it was of.So the mother wiped the axe and laughed.hen she took the heart and liver of the little girl, and she stewed them and brought them into the house for supper.My wicked mother slew me, My dear father ate me […] At the beginning of the nineteenth century, in Brazil, the literature translated for children had as its primary purpose the acquisition of ethical and moral norms and by this means had to adapt or even delete passages which did not act accordingly.Tatar (1993) in the chapter "he Pedagogy of Fear in Fairy Tales" describes and points out some exemplary tales about disobedience and its consequences.In the fairy tales proposed to the analysis in this study, we can identify some which convey this message of fear and death threat all aiming at teaching children a lesson.Nodelman (2008) highlights that "children's literature teaches beyond its obvious messages [it] shapes individuals' subjectivities into conforming to societal constraints" (p.157). he author also debates the continual need for parental protection and in a way provides whys and wherefores for the recurrence of monstrous violence in the pages of fairy tales to vindicate children's need for adult protection.
he TT Os mais belos contos de Fadas ingleses provides readers not only with an extensive array of monstrous atrocities committed by giants and ogres but also with brutal, indiscriminate mass slaughter perpetrated by the heroes all justiied in the name of safeguarding the defenceless and the helpless.he following section goes on to identify the textual representation of violence under the premise and deinition reported in this section.

Violent actions represented
Violence is textually represented and identiied in the tales with verbal expressions, which always convey as an intention to harm someone.English Fairy Tales' characters can be strangled, smothered, hung, just to mention some. he verbs that convey the meanings of violence can thus incorporate other senses; to put it another way, violence here is the "superordinate" term and kill, chuck, hang, mutilate examples of "hyponyms" of violence.According to Hatim, B. & Munday (2004), these words represent the hierarchic structuring for semantic analysis.hey cover lexical items within the same semantic category, for instance, cannibalism involves eating, and eating involves chewing, swallowing and devouring.As a result, we can say that meanings here move from a "noun" that holds the umbrella -the superordinate -and the lexical items with more accurate meanings -the hyponyms.he following table exempliies cannibalism as superordinate.Cannibalism is the superordinate and eat, have, chew, swallow, and devour are its hyponyms.Each of them carries the meaning of eating human lesh or the lesh of an animal of the same kind.his hierarchic structuring of the superordinate and the hyponym helped to compose the basis for the analysis of the fairy tales and to delimit the puriication items to go into the puriication strategies.Klingberg (1986) assigns to puriication the textual components which conlict with the cultural, moral, religious and educational values of the target system.Under those circumstances, the translator's solution to tackling doubtful values lays mainly on the strategies applied in translation processes.hese solutions are here referred as translation strategies, deined by Chesterman (1997) as "potentially conscious plans or decisions for solving a transition problem" (p.268).hese decisions can be global and local, being the irst applied to the "translator's initial decision about the general nature of the relationship between target and source texts" (p.90) and the second to the intertextual relationship between source and target text.Adding to the global and local decisions are the communication strategies, subdivided into comprehension and production strategies.he irst concerns a cognitive analysis of the ST (process) and the second the manipulation of the TT aiming at complying with its cultural system.hereupon, the local strategy is the one which most suits the analytical purpose of this study about intertextual matters.

Translation strategies
Immediately, Chesterman (1997) subdivides the local strategy into syntactic (form), semantic (meaning), and pragmatic (manipulate the message itself and can be a result of the global strategy).From those last given strategies, this study focuses on the semantic as it considers the transference of meaning from source to target text, including the ST (superordinate) ↔ ST/TT (hyponym), for instance: ST (devouring) ↔ TT (swallowed).Given these points, the ST yields the superordinate and the TT returns the hyponyms.
As described above, a superordinate holds the general meaning of the hyponyms within each category.For instance, if chew is in the sense of eating, hence chew is a hyponym of the superordinate eat.In the same token chew and eat are hyponyms of the superordinate cannibalism.Under those circumstances, the superordinates that best cover the hyponyms found in the STs are (i) mutilation; (ii) cannibalism, (iii) killing and death threat; (iv) hanging; (v) physical injury; (vi) devouring.hese superordinates are a result of a parallel 7. Puriication strategies Klingberg (1986) suggests nine strategies for cultural context of adaptation.hese strategies were reduced to a total of ive and had been adapted to the purpose of the analysis for this research and used as puriication strategies. he reason for this adaptation is due to the fact of their high frequency in the TT and for not having any other adequate strategies suitable for the analysis here proposed.Above all, he stresses that "it is not possible to draw up rules applicable in all instances.Every passage [to be translated] has its problems" (p.19).
Hence, regarding a similarity between some of the puriication strategies, namely the ith and the sixth ones -( 5) substitution for an equivalent in the culture of the target language, (6) substitution for a rough equivalent in the culture of the target language -they have not been selected.In the same fashion, the localisation strategy was let out because of the lack of occurrences in most of the translated fairy tales.herefore, the puriication strategies for the analysis are (1) deletion; (2) added explanation; (3) substitution of an equivalent; (4) rewording.hey have been agglutinated relecting the characteristics of the TT.

he corpus
here are forty-three fairy tales in the irst edition of English Fairy Tales published in 1890.It belongs to the public domain and is available for download from the Gutenberg Project.Also, the fairy tales translated into the Portuguese language are the ones from this edition; they even appear in the same order in the list of contents on ST and TT.
he TTs are composed of thirty-four fairy tales from Os mais belos contos de Fadas ingleses published in 1954.It is the ith edition and the one that mentions the translator, Persiano da Fonseca.
here is a diference of 9 tales between the ST and TT.his omission of some of the tales from the STs was the irst evidence that TTs had been under some puriication.Henceforth, for the analysis, the thirty-four fairy tales which are common to the ST and TT are considered; that is, the number of fairytales that compose the TT.Lastly, the Brazilian Os mais belos contos de Fadas ingleses comes to be the irst volume to have published most of the fairy tales from the English Fairy Tales.

Corpus building
he digitalisation phase follows the selection of the corpus.his step is crucial to the analytical procedure, as the texts have to be in digital format before they are aligned and inserted in comparable corpora sotware.Dr Lincoln Fernandes and his doctorate student Carlos Silva developed COPA-TRAD, a parallel translation corpus designed for teaching and learning, for translation practice and researching.his computational tool was developed for the translator/researcher to get familiar with the data in a more eicient way.his tool optimises the translation researcher's work as it is capable of retrieving a large amount of data and ofers the possibility of identifying speciic linguistic items through a parallel search.COPA-TRAD consists of four subcorpora: COPA-TEJ, COPA-MET, COPA-TEL, and COPA-LIJ.he last is the one used in this research.It is possible to check concordancing segments with COPA-CONC, to generate KWIC (Key Word in Context) lists, and to align texts with the AUTO ALIGNER tool.With the COPA-CONC search tool, it was possible to identify the candidates for puriication in the ST, namely, violence in the ST.In like manner, it was also possible to deine and outline the probable puriication categories in the ST.his tool allows the researcher to investigate ST and TT ater a process of alignment that in COPA-TRAD can be done with the AUTO ALIGNER tool.COPA-CONC generates a search of a particular item from a speciic sub-corpus.his parallel corpus tool provides searching, retrieval and cataloguing tools.According to Kenning (1998), parallel and comparable corpora are collections of electronic texts that are closely related to each other (p.487).

Superordinates: categories of violence in the sts
Violence is textually represented by six nouns which compose the superordinate categories and by some verbs that are part of the hyponyms categories. he superordinate categories are: (i) killing and death threat; (ii) physical torture; (iii) mutilation; (iv) devouring; (v) beheading; (vi) cannibalism.he alignment process helped to identify the frequency of the categories of violence in the thirty-four STs. he igure below shows this frequency -clockwise: from the most to the least frequent.

Killing and death threat
he hyponyms for this superordinate occurred in nineteen out of the thirtyfour fairy tales; they also show a high frequency of occurrences, which led this category to be the most recurrent in the STs."Nix Nought Nothing" is the fairy tale with the greatest number of categories of violence: killing and death threat, physical torture, mutilation, devouring, and cannibalism.he most frequent hyponyms in this tale are: dash, drown and kill.

Physical torture
Physical torture is the second most frequent category among the STs analysed in this study.It occurred in sixteen of the thirty-four fairy tales and the most recurrent hyponyms listed as follows: souse (throw hot dishwater), baste (pour hot fat), scald (burn with hot liquid), boil, beat, dash, hit, strangle, bind, and choke.his category occurred in: • How Jack went to seek his fortune;

Deletion
his puriication strategy can be identiied at the word (1), sentence (2) and paragraph (3) levels.When it happens, there is no substitution for an equivalent nor are rewordings of any kind made.A point oten overlooked is the deletion at story level (4).his last type of deletion is chosen when the thematic of a fairy tale goes against the set of values of the target system.For this research, a deletion at story level let aside nine fairy tales that covered cannibalism, child abuse and child delinquency, reference to the devil, thievery, human bone maceration, and human murder.here was a total of nine excluded tales.
he translation of "Whittington and his cat" shows an apparent avoidance of descriptions of erring adults or improper behavioural representations of adults.he speeches of the cook cursing and calling Whittington names are deleted and in some instances are substituted for added and shorter explanations.here is a rewording of all the physical injuries perpetrated by the ill-natured cook and the cruellest actions, such as pouring hot fat or hot dishwater over the child, are deleted.All these alterations to the TT do not turn the cook into a nicer person; instead, her actions sound less violent and reinforce the fact that bad behaviour would have punishment as a consequence as can be seen in Table 3 below.

Table 3 -Whittington and his cat: deletion
Deletion ST TT Little Dick would have lived very happily in this good family if it had not been for the ill-natured cook.She used to say: "You are under me, so look sharp; clean the spit and the drippingpan, make the ires, wind up the jack, and do all the scullery work nimbly, or--" and she would shake the ladle at him.Besides, she was so fond of basting, that when she had no meat to baste, she would baste poor Dick's head and shoulders with a broom, or anything else that happened to fall in her way.
In the TT the category of physical torture together with its hyponyms, such as basting or shaking the ladle, are rendered as pancada and her imposed orders are described instead of being uttered in the irst person.he objects, such as a broom and a ladle, used to injure Whittington, are deleted and substituted by the word pancada. he characterisation of adults as vile and cruel is considerably justiied for these deletions and substitutions.Instead, adult representation is through role models of good conduct and high Christian moral.

Added explanation
his strategy seems to be recurrent in most TTs as to give a tone of adventure by stretching the description of events to justify the indiscriminate killing carried out by the heroes."Jack o Matador de Gigantes" had eight whole paragraphs added to it.Moreover, this puriication strategy can provide the target reader with a more detailed recount of the ST.For more detail about this strategy see (Soares, 2015, p. 82-82).
"João e o feijão" and "Jack o Matador de Gigantes" presented the largest amount of added paragraphs with added explanations that were not present in the respective STs. he additions can at times alter the meaning or the sequencing of events.In the case of the TT "João o Matador de Gigantes", the added explanations justiied the brutal giant slaughter.hese added explanations puriied the massive bloodshed caused by both the giant and Jack himself.In this fashion, the added explanation can justify Jack's killing because he is always trying to free the people from the vicious assaults carried out by the Giants coupled with Jack's self-defence turning him into a hero in the end.

Substitution for an equivalent
In the translation of fairy tales, this strategy works more oten at the word level, and the rendering can present itself at the level of small chunks.To demonstrate, we have the example of "Tom Tit Tot", the English version of Rumpelstiltskin in which the sentence personagenzinha singular substitutes the adjective maliceful.
Table 5 -"Jack the Giant killer": substitution for an equivalent.

ST
TT When she entered the place of the Old One, she gave the handkerchief to old Lucifer Quando a dama se juntou por im ao feiticeiro, entregou-lhe o lenço his strategy to substitute Lucifer for feiticeiro reveals the inluence of Christian principles that permeated the Brazilian society of the time of the translation of this tale.
he translations of the hyponyms for the word killing also bring examples of this strategy.Some words are substituted for others with a lighter connotation, such as in "Nix Nought Nothing: dash the head" translated to arremessar o rapaz; dash the brains is translated to matou.
he avoidance of mutilation is recurrent in "Jack and the Beanstalk".here are mentions of pieces of a dead boy turned into the pieces of an animal: scraps of that little boy you liked so much for yesterday's dinner ↔ cheiro do sangue dos dois vitelos que trouxeste.he word veal substitutes the word boy, and no further description is added such as eating, meal, likes or dislikes.Sharing a meal substitutes the giant's intentions of feasting on Jack (e.g. who might share in the meal on Jack para comer com ele).

Rewording
his puriication strategy can oten change the chronological sequence of a plot to make the series of events clearer and more coherent.Correspondingly, it can be used to add meaning to egregious violent scenes with the aim of sotening and adding tones of justiied violence.Strategy saw in conjunction with an added explanation.It provides further detail to a scene not to mention that it might add some features to characters as to make the villain scarier and more fearsome and the hero braver and bolder."Jack, the giant killer", provides a signiicant number of instances of rewordings as to intensify the giant's might and rage.
In other instances, the rewording simpliies and dries up detailed descriptions of cruelty to animal and children.In the following example from "he ass, the table, and the stick", the hyponym pull is moved to the end of the extract rewording the loud cry of pain of the donkey purifying the inliction of physical torture upon the defenceless animal.

Figure 2 .
Figure 2. he frequency of categories of violence.